Seawater transportation for utilization in hydrocarbon-related processes including existing pipeline infrastructures

ABSTRACT

Systems and methods for transporting seawater from a seawater source to an inland site for utilization as a drilling and/or fracturing fluid are disclosed. In an aspect, systems and methods are disclosed wherein seawater is extracted from an ocean at a coastal location and transported to an inland drilling and hydraulic fracturing site, thereby providing a consistent, large volume supply of seawater for use in drilling and/or hydraulic fracturing operations. Such systems and methods may eliminate usage of locally-sourced fresh water, eliminating the unsustainable burden that drilling and hydraulic fracturing places on local water tables.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit, and is a continuation-in-part of Applicant's co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/324,875 entitled “Seawater Transportation for Utilization in Hydrocarbon-Related Processes,” filed Jul. 7, 2014, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/972,486, filed Aug. 21, 2013, issued on Aug. 19, 2014 as U.S. Pat. No. 8,807,221 (the “'221 patent”), which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/821,792, filed May 10, 2013, and entitled “Transporting Seawater for Utilization in Hydrocarbon-Related Processes,” the entire contents of each being incorporated herein by reference.

The '221 patent also claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/837,921, filed Jun. 21, 2013, and entitled “Seawater Transportation For Utilization In Hydrocarbon-Related Processes Including Rail Transportation,” the entire contents of which is incorporated herein by reference.

This Application is also related to Applicant's U.S. Pat. No. 8,733,442 and U.S. Pat. No. 8,833,456, each of which was filed on Aug. 21, 2013, the entire contents of each being incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE

The present disclosure generally relates to hydrocarbon extraction processes and more particularly to systems and methods for utilizing seawater in drilling and hydraulic fracturing processes.

BACKGROUND

The statements in this section merely provide background information related to the present disclosure and may not constitute prior art.

Hydraulic fracturing processes are used to, among other things, extract subterranean oil. These processes require significant amounts of water to operate. A single oil or gas well may require three to thirteen million gallons of water. Land-based hydraulic fracturing sites currently utilize locally-sourced fresh water, placing an enormous, unsustainable strain on the local water table.

Currently, areas of significant drilling, such as Texas, have devoted as much as ten percent of local fresh water usage to drilling and hydraulic fracturing operations. According to the Texas Water Development Board and the Railroad Commission of Texas, the State's oil and gas regulator, in 2011, Texas used a greater number of barrels of water for oil and natural gas fracking (approximately 632 million) than the number of barrels of oil produced (approximately 441 million). Water consumption is expected to rise as drilling operations expand. For example, by 2035, the U.S. Energy Information Administration expects nearly 80% of the 21 trillion cubic feet of natural gas produced annually to be from “unconventional” sources such as hydraulically fractured shale. Furthermore, such processes stress arid, fragile ecosystems because many of the most oil-rich portions of the United States (e.g., Eagle Ford Shale and the Permian Basin) are the driest. Some average less than 21 inches of rainfall a year. The current rate of land-based hydraulic fracturing, notwithstanding projected growth, cannot be sustained using fresh water alone.

Hydraulic fracturing processes, also known as “fracking,” “fracing,” or “fraccing,” are used to release hydrocarbons and other substances contained in subterranean rock formations via high pressure injection of a fracturing fluid, such as fresh water, into the rock formation.

In recent years, hydraulic fracturing has been widely used to access previously unreachable deposits of oil and natural gas. As of 2010, 60% of all new oil and gas wells worldwide were created using hydraulic fracturing. Because vast amounts of formerly inaccessible oil and gas can be extracted using hydraulic fracturing, it is likely that usage of such processes will increase in the future.

The fracturing fluid comprises water and low concentrations of chemical additives, depending on the characteristics of the water and the rock formation being fractured. For example, the fracturing fluid may comprise so-called slickwater additives, adapted to reduce friction, allowing the fracturing fluid to be pumped into the fracture at a higher rate than if water alone were used. Slickwater additives typically make up less than two percent of the fracturing fluid and must be adjusted for each rock formation or “play.” Borate salts and potassium chloride (a metal halide salt commonly used as a substitute for table salt) are also common fracturing fluid additives.

After injection, a portion of the fracturing fluid returns to the surface. Such returning fluid is known as “produced water.” Produced water, generated from hydraulic fracturing or normal production of oil and gas wells, typically has a higher concentration of salt, other compounds, elements, and impurities. Produced water may be re-used in the hydraulic fracturing process, however only 40-50% of initially-injected fracturing fluid returns to the surface. Therefore, additional fracturing fluid must be continually added even when produced water is reused. Because of its heavy salinity and impurity concentration, produced water must be removed, cleaned, or reused. Most often, produced water is re-injected into disposal wells or re-injected into injection wells used to maintain the reservoir pressure.

Hydraulic fracturing has been used to create offshore oil wells. For example, large hydraulic fracturing vessels have been employed to open wells in the North Sea, the Arabian Sea, off the western coast of Africa and off the Unites States Gulf Coast. Initially, offshore hydraulic fracturing processes used fracturing fluids comprising fresh water. Fresh water proved to be a major limitation because it was carried out to sea via tankers with limited cargo capacity. Later offshore hydraulic fracturing processes began utilizing a fracturing fluid comprising seawater. Seawater is simply collected from the surrounding ocean, processed, and injected into the fracturing site, thereby eliminating the production bottleneck of a limited fracturing fluid supply.

Given the foregoing, systems and methods for transporting seawater from a plentiful source (e.g., an ocean, saltwater lake, brine source, and the like) to a hydraulic fracturing site are needed. Additionally, systems and methods for transporting, processing and utilizing produced water generated during hydraulic fracturing processes are needed. Systems and methods for transporting seawater and produced water to areas with plentiful resources for de-salinization, additional hydraulic fracturing sites, storage areas, and processing areas, are needed.

SUMMARY

This Summary is provided to introduce a selection of concepts. These concepts are further described below in the Detailed Description section. This Summary is not intended to identify key features or essential features of this disclosure's subject matter, nor is this Summary intended as an aid in determining the scope of the disclosed subject matter.

Aspects of the present disclosure meet the above-identified needs by providing systems and methods for transporting seawater from a source to an oilfield drilling site and/or a hydraulic fracturing site. Specifically, in an aspect, systems and methods are disclosed wherein seawater is pumped from an ocean at a coastal location and transported to an inland site via a pipeline, thereby providing a consistent, large volume supply of seawater for use in operations such as drilling for oil and natural gas, hydraulic fracturing operations, and the like. In some alternative aspects, the source of seawater may include effluent/waste/discharged/other water from a plant, such as a thermoelectric plant, steel plant, a hydrothermal system, oilfield pipe manufacturing plant, desalination plant, and the like. The thermoelectric plants may be powered by any fuel source, including geothermal, nuclear, coal, natural gas, and the like. Seawater sources may also include produced water, either “as-is” or that is cleaned/reconditioned first, as well as fluids that have been used in previous hydraulic fracturing processes. Seawater from two or more sources may be combined in order to form additional seawater compositions.

In an aspect, a large diameter pipeline originates at an extraction station, such as a pumping station, located at a seawater source (e.g., the United States Gulf of Mexico), enabling seawater to be pumped from the seawater source into the pipeline. The pipeline extends inland to an area near a hydrocarbon-laden rock formation, such as the Haynesville Shale Formation located under parts of southwestern Arkansas, northwest Louisiana, and east Texas. Transported seawater is received at an inland site (e.g., a drilling or hydraulic fracturing site) located near the rock formation and is then used to augment or replace fresh water utilization at the inland site. That is, the drilling “mud,” hydraulic fracturing fluids, and/or other fluids using in drilling or hydraulic fracturing processes may comprise seawater sourced from a seawater source, such as the United States Gulf of Mexico, and fresh water. In another aspect, such fluids comprise seawater sourced from the sea and do not comprise fresh water. In still another aspect, such fluids may alternatively comprise seawater sourced from a seawater source in combination with produced water and/or fluids from previous hydraulic fracturing processes. The produced water and/or previously used hydraulic fracturing fluids may be used “as-is” or may go through a cleaning/reconditioning process first. In some aspects, the produced water and/or previously used hydraulic fracturing fluids may be supplied from other sites.

As of 2010, 60% of new oil and gas wells are created using water-intensive hydraulic fracturing processes. Each new oil and gas well created using hydraulic fracturing may use three to 13 million gallons of fresh water, placing enormous strain on local water tables, such as the Ogallala. Usage of seawater sourced from a large supply such as the Gulf of Mexico or another seawater source (e.g., an ocean, a gulf, saltwater lake, and the like) eliminates usage of fresh water from local, finite water tables, enabling drilling for oil and natural gas, hydraulic fracturing, and other related processes to continue or expand without depleting local water tables or paying for that rapidly decreasing resource. Additionally, seawater freezes at a lower temperature than fresh water, making it more suitable for application to drilling processes and other functions in colder climates, such as North Dakota.

In an aspect, existing pipelines, such as those that have been derated or discontinued from use, may be adapted for utilization with the present disclosure. That is, seawater may be transported from the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, or similar saltwater body, reservoir, or any other location, to an inland site (e.g., oilfield drilling sites, hydraulic fracturing sites) using existing pipelines. In some aspects, a portion of a seawater transportation system in accordance with the present disclosure is constructed so that it interconnects a seawater source with an existing pipeline. A delivery pipeline may be constructed so that it originates at a portion of the existing pipeline proximal to the inland site and terminates at the inland site. In some additional aspects, one or more oil and/or natural gas platforms and their associated trunk lines that are integrated with the existing pipeline may be appropriated for use with a seawater transportation system as well. By way of example and not limitation, existing pipelines that may be adapted for the transportation of seawater include pipelines that have been previously used to transport oil, natural gas, gasoline, municipal fresh water, or any other fluid(s) that are currently transported by pipeline systems as may be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) after reading the description herein.

In an aspect, a seawater transportation system is configured to transport seawater from a seawater source to a hydraulic fracturing site. Utilization of such seawater generates produced water having higher concentrations of salt, other compounds, and elements. Produced water must be disposed of, reused, or cleaned. A portion of the pipeline may be used to transport produced water to a second site. The second site may be a disposal site, a desalinization site, another hydraulic fracturing site, and the like.

In an aspect, systems and methods are disclosed wherein seawater is pumped from a plentiful source of seawater (e.g., an ocean) and transported to an inland site via a seawater transportation system which comprises rail-based transports. Seawater may be loaded onto tanker cars and carried by rail to a location at or near an inland site, thereby providing a consistent, large volume supply of seawater for use in oilfield drilling operations, hydraulic fracturing operations, and the like.

A seawater transportation system comprising rail-based transports may further comprise one or more pipelines to transport seawater.

In an aspect, seawater transportation systems comprise alternative transportation devices including, but not limited to: air transportation; commercial vehicles; and ships. Such transportation devices may carry seawater the entire distance between the plentiful source of seawater and the inland site, or a portion of the distance.

Further features and advantages of the present disclosure, as well as the structure and operation of various aspects of the present disclosure, are described in detail below with reference to the accompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The features and advantages of the present disclosure will become more apparent from the Detailed Description set forth below when taken in conjunction with the drawings in which like reference numbers indicate identical or functionally similar elements.

FIGS. 1A & 1B are diagrams of an exemplary inland site where hydraulic fracturing and natural gas drilling occur, which may be augmented by systems and processes of the present disclosure.

FIG. 2 is a diagram depicting locations of known hydrocarbon-containing shale formations throughout the lower 48 states, according to an aspect of the present disclosure.

FIG. 3 is a diagram depicting the location of multiple inland sites and a seawater transportation system, according to an aspect of the present disclosure.

FIG. 4 is a diagram depicting the location of multiple inland sites and a seawater transportation system, according to an aspect of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 5A&B are diagrams depicting, respectively, the locations of known hydrocarbon-containing shale formations in the State of Texas and the freight rail system in the State of Texas, according to an aspect of the present disclosure.

FIG. 6 is a diagram depicting the location of multiple hydraulic fracturing sties and a seawater transportation system comprising railways, according to an aspect of the present disclosure.

FIG. 7 is a diagram depicting the location of multiple inland sites and a seawater transportation system comprising multiple transportation devices, according to an aspect of the present disclosure.

FIG. 8 is a flowchart illustrating an exemplary process for utilizing seawater collected from a seawater source at an inland site for drilling or hydraulic fracturing operations, according to an aspect of the present disclosure.

FIG. 9 is a flowchart illustrating an exemplary process for utilizing seawater collected from a seawater source at an inland site for drilling or hydraulic fracturing operations, according to an aspect of the present disclosure.

FIG. 10 is a flowchart illustrating an exemplary process for transporting received seawater collected from a seawater source, wherein the destination of the received seawater is an inland site, according to an aspect of the present disclosure.

FIG. 11 is a diagram depicting the location of multiple existing platforms and pipelines that support oil and/or natural gas production and transportation, according to an aspect of the present disclosure.

FIG. 12 is a diagram depicting the locations of a plethora of existing active platforms that support oil and/or natural gas production, according to an aspect of the present disclosure.

FIG. 13 is a diagram of an exemplary hydrothermal cooling system that may receive and/or provide seawater used by a seawater transportation system, according to an aspect of the present disclosure.

FIG. 14 is a diagram of the functions of an exemplary hydrothermal cooling system that may receive and/or provide seawater used by a seawater transportation system, according to an aspect of the present disclosure.

FIG. 15 is a diagram of an exemplary intake pipeline configuration that may be integrated with the seawater transportation system of the present disclosure.

FIG. 16 is a diagram of an exemplary configuration of intake pipelines configured to be used with the seawater transportation system of the present disclosure.

FIG. 17 is a diagram of an exemplary configuration of intake pipelines with an extraction location, according to an aspect of the present disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present disclosure is directed to systems and methods for utilizing seawater to augment or replace utilization of fresh water in drilling and fracturing fluids; the latter being used for hydraulic fracturing processes.

Aspects of the present disclosure provide systems and methods for transporting seawater from an oceanic source to an inland site (e.g., an oilfield drilling site, a hydraulic fracturing site, an oil well, a natural gas well, a combination site, and the like). Specifically, in an aspect, systems and methods are disclosed wherein seawater is pumped from a body of water at a coastal location and transported to an inland drilling and hydraulic fracturing site via a pipeline, thereby providing a consistent, large volume supply of seawater for use in drilling and hydraulic fracturing operations.

Unless otherwise noted, for the purposes of the present disclosure, “seawater” refers to water originating from a source of water containing large amounts of salt, such as the ocean, salt water lakes, and the like. Additionally, a seawater source may include effluent/waste/discharged/other water from a plant, such as a thermoelectric plant, steel plant, a hydrothermal system, oilfield pipe manufacturing plant, desalination plant, and the like. The thermoelectric plants may be powered by any fuel source, including geothermal, nuclear, coal, natural gas, and the like. Seawater sources may also include produced water, either “as-is” or that is cleaned/reconditioned first, as well as fluids that have been used in previous hydraulic fracturing processes. Seawater from two or more sources may be combined in order to form additional seawater compositions.

Referring now to FIGS. 1A & 1B, diagrams 100, 101 of an exemplary inland site where hydraulic fracturing and natural gas drilling occur, which may be augmented by systems and processes of the present disclosure, are shown.

As shown in diagram 101, hydraulic fracturing processes may occur at an inland site 110 comprising one or more wellbores 112. Hydraulic fracturing processes create fractures in subterranean hydrocarbon-bearing formations 102 in order to release hydrocarbons contained therein. In the United States, hydraulic fracturing is increasingly implemented in order to create new oil and gas wells which tap into oil and gas contained within shale rock formations. Shale formations may be 8,000 feet or more below the surface.

Hydraulic fracturing processes release hydrocarbons trapped in subterranean hydrocarbon-bearing formations 102 via high pressure injection of a fracturing fluid at wellbore 112. The fracturing fluid typically principally comprises fresh water, sourced from a local aquifer 104. As shown in FIG. 1, hydraulic fracturing utilizes water from local aquifer 104. Water may be stored in one or more storage tanks 106 (labeled, for clarity, only as storage tank 106 in FIG. 1B) until the water (or other base fluid, such as seawater, disclosed in detail below) is needed.

A base fluid, such as freshwater from aquifer 104 or seawater, may be combined with one or more proppant types and one or more additives to form the fracturing fluid. In another aspect, the base fluid, or some combination of the base fluid and one or more additional elements, such as bentonite or a chemical additive, may be used as a drilling fluid.

Proppants may be silica sand, resin-coated sand, ceramics, particulates, and the like, and serve to keep an induced hydraulic fracture open during or following a fracturing treatment. Proppants may be stored on site in proppant storage facility 116.

The fracturing fluid may comprise slickwater additives, adapted to reduce friction, allowing the fracturing fluid to be pumped into the fracture at a higher rate than if water alone were used. Additives vary based on the characteristics of the base fluid and the rock formation being fractured. Slickwater additives typically make up less than two percent of the fracturing fluid and must be adjusted for each rock formation or play. Borate salts and potassium chloride, a metal halide salt commonly used as a substitute for table salt, are also common fracturing fluid additives. Because salts may be used as additives in fracturing fluids and offshore drilling and hydraulic fracturing utilizes seawater as a base fluid, land-based hydraulic drilling and fracturing processes may be adapted to utilize seawater-based fracturing fluids.

Additives may also include one or more of: biocides, buffers, corrosion inhibitors, crosslinkers, friction reducers, gelling agents, scale inhibitors, and surfactants. Additives may be stored at inland site 110 in additive storage tank 114.

Additives and/or proppants may be combined with a base fluid to form a drilling or hydraulic fracturing fluid via one or more mixers 108 (labeled, for clarity, only as mixer 108 in FIG. 1B). Mixer 108 may be fluidically connected to a storage tank 106, additive storage tank 114, wellbore 112, a high-pressure pump, or the like.

Inland site 110 may further comprise base fluid processing equipment (not shown in FIGS. 1A & 1B) such as a water treatment facility configured to remove at least one contaminant from the base fluid (e.g., via filters). In alternate aspects, a water treatment facility is configured to remove one or more of the following: biological matter; plastic debris; metals; pesticides; artificially created chemicals; and radioactive material.

Inland site 110 may be adapted to measure physical properties (e.g., chemical content, pH, and the like) of the base fluid and add at least one additive based on the measured physical properties of the base fluid. In an aspect, the base fluid is seawater and the pH of the seawater may be measured and an acid or a base may be added in order to maintain the pH of the seawater within a desired range.

Inland site 110 may comprise one or more injectors (e.g., high-pressure pumps) configured to inject a drilling fluid or a hydraulic fracturing fluid into wellbore 112 at the high pressures necessary to facilitate drilling or hydraulic fracturing. In an aspect, wellbore 112 comprises an injector and the injector is fluidically connected to storage tank 106 and mixer 108. An injector may be a high-pressure pump removably positionable at wellbore 112.

Fresh water may be extracted from local aquifer 104 via private wells or public water wells. In many areas of significant drilling and hydraulic fracturing, ten percent or more of the local aquifer 104 is devoted to supporting these activities. As much as thirteen million gallons of locally-sourced fresh water may be injected into wellbore 112 during hydraulic fracturing. 40 to 50% of this water eventually returns to the surface as produced water. Produced water typically has a much higher concentration of salt, other compounds, elements, and impurities. Such water must be stored (e.g., in waste ponds, as shown in FIG. 1), removed, cleaned, pumped into disposal wells, or reused. Typically, produced water is initially stored on site, creating a risk to the local aquifer 104.

Referring now to FIG. 2, a diagram 200 depicting the locations of known subterranean hydrocarbon-bearing formations (e.g., shale formations) throughout the lower 48 states, according to an aspect of the present disclosure, is shown.

FIG. 2 shows multiple subterranean hydrocarbon-bearing formations 102, namely shale formations 202 (shown, for clarity, as shale formations 202 a-d in FIG. 2), suitable for exploration and extraction of hydrocarbons via drilling and hydraulic fracturing. Shale formations 202 are accessible from land-based drilling sites. Such sites are often significantly inland, requiring the use of local aquifers for drilling and fracturing fluids. Water sources 204 (shown, for clarity, only as water source 204 a-c in FIG. 2) such as the Gulf of Mexico 204 b, the Atlantic Ocean 204 c, and the Pacific Ocean 204 a, may provide seawater suitable for usage in land-based drilling and hydraulic fracturing processes.

Referring now to FIGS. 3 & 4, diagram 300 and diagram 400, respectively, depict the location of multiple inland sites 110 and seawater transportation systems 310, according to aspects of the present disclosure, are shown.

Inland site 110 may be a land-based drilling and hydraulic fracturing site 302 (shown, for clarity, only as hydraulic fracturing sites 302 a-d in FIG. 3). Inland sites 110 are typically located hundreds or thousands of miles inland, above shale formations 202.

The terms “inland site,” “drilling and hydraulic fracturing site,” or “hydraulic fracturing site” and/or the plural form of these terms are used interchangeably throughout herein to refer to drilling sites, well sites, hydrocarbon extraction sites, and the like wherein drilling fluids, fracturing fluids, pressurizing fluids, and the like are utilized.

Seawater transportation system 310 is configured to transport seawater from a source 204 to one or more hydraulic fracturing sites 302. Transportation system 310 may comprise at least one pipeline 304 which interconnects an extraction station 306 located at or near source 204 to hydraulic fracturing site 302 located inland. Hydraulic fracturing site 302 may be located tens or hundreds of miles away from water source 204. Drilling and hydraulic fracturing sites, such as hydraulic fracturing site 302, may comprise seawater storage tanks 106 (not shown in FIG. 3) that store seawater from transportation system 310. Seawater stored in such seawater storage tanks 106 may be used at a later time at hydraulic fracturing site 302, transported to another hydraulic fracturing site 302 not located near pipeline 304 via another transportation mechanism (e.g., rail, truck, air, and the like), or transported or used by other facilities/industries (e.g., a desalinization plant, fisheries, and the like).

As will be appreciated by those skilled in the relevant art(s) after reading the description herein, transportation system 310 may comprise additional elements found in aqueducts, oil pipelines, and other pipeline-based transportation systems. For example, transportation system 310 may comprise an initial injection station, pump stations, partial delivery stations, block valve stations, regulator stations, final delivery stations and the like. Transportation system 310 may comprise branching pipeline 304, as shown in FIG. 4, thereby enabling seawater to flow to multiple locations for utilization at multiple hydraulic fracturing sites 302. Transportation system 310 may be used to transport produced water from a first hydraulic fracturing site 302 to a second hydraulic fracturing site 302. Additives may be introduced into the produced water in order to enable the produced water to be used as fracturing fluid at the second hydraulic fracturing site 302.

In an aspect, extraction station 306 is located at source 204. In another aspect, extraction station 306 is located a distance from source 204 and is configured to receive seawater and pass such seawater into other portions of transportation systems disclosed herein (e.g., systems comprising pipelines, systems comprising railcars, and the like).

In an aspect, a 48 inch diameter pipeline 304 originates at extraction station 306 (e.g., a pumping station, pump, underwater pipe, or the like) located at Gulf of Mexico 204, enabling seawater to be pumped from Gulf of Mexico 204 into pipeline 304. Pipeline 304 extends inland to an area near a hydrocarbon-laden rock formation 202, such as the Haynesville Shale Formation located under parts of southwestern Arkansas, northwest Louisiana, and east Texas. Transported seawater is received at hydraulic fracturing site 302 located near rock formation 202 and is then used to augment or replace fresh water utilization drilling processes, hydraulic fracturing processes, and the like. That is, the drilling or fracturing fluids used may comprise seawater sourced from Gulf of Mexico 204 and fresh water. In another aspect, such fluids may comprise seawater sourced from Gulf of Mexico 204 and do not comprise any fresh water. In still another aspect, such fluids may alternatively comprise seawater sourced from a seawater source in combination with produced water and/or fluids from previous hydraulic fracturing processes. The produced water and/or previously used hydraulic fracturing fluids may be used “as-is” or may go through a cleaning/reconditioning process first. In some aspects, the produced water and/or previously used hydraulic fracturing fluids may be supplied from other sites 110 and/or 302.

In an aspect, seawater transportation system 310 is configured to transport seawater from seawater source 204 to a hydraulic fracturing site 302. Utilization of such seawater generates produced water having higher concentrations of salt, other compounds, and elements. Produced water must disposed of, reused, or cleaned. Additional portions of seawater transportation system 310 may be used to transport produced water to a second site. The second site may be a disposal site, a storage site, a desalinization site, a fishery, a site operated by another industry, another hydraulic fracturing site, and the like.

Referring now to FIGS. 5A & 5B, diagrams 501 and 503 depicting, respectively, the locations of known hydrocarbon-containing shale formations in the State of Texas and the freight rail system in the State of Texas, according to an aspect of the present disclosure, are shown.

Diagram 501 is a detailed view of known hydrocarbon-containing shale formations 202 (shown, for clarity, as shale formations 202 a-b in FIG. 5A). For example, the Barnett shale formation 202 a is approximately five thousand square miles and underlies Fort Worth, Tex. as well as at least 17 counties in the State of Texas.

Diagram 503 details freight railways 502 (shown, for clarity, as railways 502 a-c in FIG. 5B) throughout the State of Texas. Typically, railways 502 are designed to transport materials from shipping centers or manufacturing facilities to population centers or finishing facilities. For example, railway 202 may start at a port 504 (shown, for clarity, as ports 504 a-b in FIG. 5B), such as the Port of Galveston 504 a and extend to a population center, such as Fort Worth, Tex. Railway 202 comprises various stops, switches, and branches along the way, enabling cargo to be loaded and unloaded along railway 202.

Port 504 may comprise terminal switching railroads, such as the Galveston Railroad, which facilitate transportation of cargo to and from ships at port 504. Port 504 may comprise function-specific railways, which allow engines and railcars to transit between railway 202 and a company-specific facility, such as extraction station 306.

As shown in diagram 503, a plurality of railways 502 pass over shale formations 202 shown in diagram 501. Many stops exist over shale formations 202. Hydraulic fracturing sties 302 (not shown in FIGS. 5A & 5B) may be located near existing railway stops. In an aspect, additional railway stops may be constructed near hydraulic fracturing sites 302. In another aspect, transportation systems may be constructed to move seawater from an existing railway stop to hydraulic fracturing site 302 (e.g., temporary, flexible pipelines, rigid pipelines, truck routes, and the like).

Referring now to FIG. 6, a diagram 600 depicting the location of multiple hydraulic fracturing sties 302 and seawater transportation system 310 comprising railways 502, according to an aspect of the present disclosure, is shown.

Seawater may be transported from source 204 to inland hydraulic fracturing site 302 via seawater transportation system 310. Seawater may be used at hydraulic fracturing site 302 to facilitate hydrocarbon extraction in lieu of locally-sourced fresh water.

In an aspect, seawater transportation system may comprise railway 502, which originates at the Port of Galveston, passes through Bryan, Tex., Waco, Tex., and terminates near Fort Worth, Tex., above the Barnett Shale Formation 202. Railway 502 may receive seawater at Port of Galveston 504 and carry seawater by tanker cars to hydraulic fracturing site 302 located at Barnett Shale Formation 202, thereby supplying a consistent large volume of seawater for hydraulic fracturing operations.

In an aspect, seawater is pumped from source 204 via extraction station 306 and loaded onto railroad cars at a loading station (not shown). Upon loading, the railcars are driven to an unloading station 602 comprising a railway stop. At unloading station 602, the seawater is unloaded and utilized at hydraulic fracturing site 302.

Railcars may be tanker cars or another vehicle configured to transport seawater. Railway 502 may originate at port 504 or at a different location. Seawater may be transported the majority of the distance between source 204 and hydraulic fracturing site 302 via railway. In another aspect shown in FIG. 7, railway 502 transports seawater only a portion of the distance between source 204 and hydraulic fracturing site 302. Seawater transportation system 310 may additionally comprise at least one pipeline 304 configured to carry seawater. Seawater transportation system 310 may comprise additional elements enabling the seawater to be inserted and removed from pipeline 304 and loaded and unloaded from railroad cars. Seawater may be transferred multiple times between pipelines 304 and railcars or other transportation mechanisms as it is transported from source 204 to inland site 110.

In an aspect, seawater transportation systems 310 comprise alternative transportation devices including, but not limited to: air transportation; commercial vehicles; and ships. Such transportation devices may carry seawater the entire distance between source 204 and inland hydraulic fracturing site 302, or a portion of the distance.

In order to maintain the cost-effectiveness of implementing and utilizing seawater transportation system 310, various companies participating in the oil and/or natural gas industry may form one or more coalitions in order to share construction, maintenance, and/or usage costs associated with any aspect(s) of seawater transportation system 310. By way of example and not limitation, a group of companies could share in the cost of building a pipeline 304, and then share access to the seawater brought in by that pipeline. In some aspects, the coalition may be operated/managed by one of its members. In some alternative aspects, the coalition may be operated by a third party via a compensation scheme, such as cost-plus and the like. Other forms of group project funding/sharing may be utilized as recognized by those skilled in the relevant art(s).

Now referring to FIG. 8, a flowchart illustrating an exemplary process 800 for utilizing seawater collected from seawater source 204 at inland site 110 for drilling or hydraulic fracturing operations, according to an aspect of the present disclosure, is shown.

Process 800 may utilize some or all of the following: seawater transportation system 310; roads; extraction station 306; pipeline 304. Such elements may be located at one or more of the following: seawater source 204; port 504; railway 502; loading station; unloading station 602; inland site 110; hydraulic fracturing site 302; shale formation 202; and the like. Process 800 begins at step 802 and passes immediately to step 804.

At step 804, seawater is collected from a seawater source. In an aspect, collection is carried out by extraction station 306, namely a seawater pump, positioned in or near seawater source 204 (e.g., the United States Gulf of Mexico). In another aspect, seawater may be collected by marine vessels or other means that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) after reading the description herein.

At step 806, the collected seawater is transported to inland site 110. In an aspect, inland site 110 is located more than one hundred miles from seawater source 204. In an aspect, seawater source 204 is located more than ten miles from the shoreline of the nearest land mass. Particularly when seawater source 204 is an ocean or a saltwater lake, the actual point of extraction within seawater source 204 may be at least one hundred feet below the surface of the water. A factor in determining a proper extraction location is to identify a location and depth whereat the seawater is clean and undisturbed, having a low solids content and consistent quality. Locating seawater of an appropriate quality may necessitate the need to position the extraction location many miles from land and many feet below the surface of seawater source 204. Inland site 110 may be located in an area of low annual rainfall, such as the Eagle Ford Shale or the Permian Basin. The collected seawater may be transported using seawater transportation system 310. In an aspect, collected seawater may be transported at least a portion of the way by pipeline 304. Pipeline 304 may comprise above ground piping, underground piping, temporary piping, and the like. In another aspect, the collected seawater may be transported at least part of the way via railcar.

At step 808, at least one sensor may be deployed to measure at least one physical property of the collected seawater. In an aspect, the sensor may be deployed at extraction station 306. In another aspect, one or more sensors may be deployed along transportation system 310. In another aspect, one or more sensors may be deployed at inland site 110. The sensors may measure volume, temperature, chemical content, pH level, salinity level, contaminant levels, and the like, thereby enabling the collected seawater to be treated and/or utilized.

At step 810, at least one additive is added to the collected seawater in order to maintain the physical properties of the collected seawater within a desired range. Additives may include a base, an acid, or another material that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) after reading the description herein. Step 810 may be carried out at, for example, inland site 110.

At step 812, at least one contaminant is removed from the collected seawater. The at least one contaminant may be removed by base fluid processing equipment. In an aspect, such equipment is located at inland site 110. In another aspect, such equipment is located at extraction station 306, thereby removing contaminants before the collected seawater is transported via, for example, pipeline 304 or via railcar.

At step 814, at least one fracturing additive, such as a slickwater additive is added to the collected seawater.

At step 816, at least one type of proppant, such as silica sand, is added to the collected seawater.

Steps 814 and 816 convert the collected seawater into a seawater-based hydraulic fracturing fluid. In another aspect, steps 814 and 816 may convert the collected seawater into a drilling fluid.

At step 818, seawater-based fluid, such as the seawater-based hydraulic fracturing fluid, is injected into wellbore 112 in order to facilitate subterranean operations, such as drilling or hydraulic fracturing. Process 800 then terminates at step 820.

All or portions of process 800 may be carried out by, for example, seawater collection companies, rail operators, pipeline operators, wellhead or drill site operators, drilling fluids engineers, and the like.

As will be apparent to those having skill in the relevant art(s) after reading the description herein, process 800 may be modified by removing, rearranging, adding, or substituting steps. For example, in another aspect, process 800 omits steps 808, 810 and 812. In another aspect process 800 omits steps 814 and 816.

As will be apparent to those having skill in the relevant art(s) after reading the description herein, collected seawater, mixtures comprising collected seawater, and the like may be stored during process 800 in, for example, storage tank 106.

Now referring to FIG. 9, a flowchart illustrating an exemplary process 900 for utilizing seawater collected from seawater source 204 at inland site 110 for drilling or hydraulic fracturing operations, according to an aspect of the present disclosure, is shown.

Some or all of the steps of process 900 are carried out at inland site 110. In an aspect, inland site 110 operator carries out process 900. Process 900 begins at step 902 and passes immediately to step 904.

At step 904, seawater collected from seawater source 204 is received at inland site 110. Seawater may be received at an unloading site via railcar. In another aspect, seawater may be received via pipeline 304. In another aspect, seawater is received via tanker trucks.

At step 906, at least one additive, such as a pH balancing additive, slickwater additive or proppant, is added to the collected seawater. Step 906 may be carried out at inland site 110. In another aspect, step 906 may be carried out at extraction station 306, or some other location. Seawater typically has a salinity of 30 to 50 ppt whereas freshwater has a salinity of 0 to 0.5 ppt. In an aspect, an additive is mixed with the collected seawater in order to account for the salinity of the collected seawater, or to facilitate usage of collected seawater when considering its salinity.

At step 908, seawater-based fluid, such as the seawater-based hydraulic fracturing fluid, is injected into wellbore 112 in order to facilitate subterranean operations, such as drilling or hydraulic fracturing. Process 900 then terminates at step 910.

Now referring to FIG. 10, a flowchart illustrating an exemplary process 1000 for transporting received seawater collected from seawater source 204, wherein the destination of the received seawater is inland site 110, according to an aspect of the present disclosure, is shown.

Some or all of the steps of process 1000 may be carried out by a transportation company, bulk carrier, or similar. Process 1000 begins at step 1002 and passed immediately to step 1004.

At step 1004, seawater which has been collected from seawater source 204 is received. In an aspect, the collected seawater is received at a loading station located at port 504 for loading onto a plurality of railcars. In another aspect, the collected seawater is received at a loading station located inland from the port seawater source. The collected seawater may be delivered by another transportation mechanism, such as pipeline 304.

At step 1006, the collected seawater is transported in order to facilitate delivery of the collected seawater at inland site 110.

At step 1008, the transported, collected seawater is provided. In an aspect, this occurs at inland site 110 and the collected seawater is provided to an end user such as a wellhead operator, a drill operator, an oil and gas company, or the like. In another aspect, the collected seawater is only transported a portion of the way to inland site 110, therefore the collected seawater may be transferred to another transportation mechanism in order to facilitate delivery of the collected seawater at inland site 110 for usage by an end user. Process 1000 then terminates at step 1010.

Referring now to FIG. 11, a diagram depicting the location of multiple existing platforms 1104 and pipelines 1102 that support oil and/or natural gas production and transportation, according to an aspect of the present disclosure, is shown.

In an aspect, existing trunk lines, including existing pipelines 1102, associated with existing platforms 1104 used for the drilling, production, and transportation of oil and/or natural gas may be adapted for the extraction and transportation of seawater, thereby offering a significant reduction in spending and negative environmental impact that may be associated with constructing new platforms and trunk lines. By way of example and not limitation, existing pipelines 1102 (labeled only as 1102 a-b in FIG. 11, for clarity) may be appropriated to transport seawater from seawater source 204 to various destinations, such as hydraulic fracturing sites 302 (not shown in FIG. 11). In some aspects, a portion of seawater transportation system 310 in accordance with the present disclosure is constructed so as to interconnect seawater source 204 with existing pipeline 1102. A delivery pipeline may be constructed originating at a portion of existing pipeline 1102 proximal to hydraulic fracturing site 302 and terminating at hydraulic fracturing site 302.

Platforms 1104 may be currently active or deactivated. Deactivated platforms 1104 may no longer be useful in the oil/natural gas industry due to age or lack of need, yet may still be able to provide utility in the extraction and/or transportation of seawater. For example, platforms 1104 which have remaining electrical connections that may provide electrical power to various components associated with system 310, such as submersible pumps. An existing pipeline 1102 and/or an existing platform 1104 that has been derated or deactivated is useful for seawater transportation usage in that it may no longer be optimal for its originally intended purpose, but sufficient to transport seawater from a location in seawater source 204 to other portions of system 310. Such derated or deactivated pipelines 1102 or platforms may by less costly to acquire or otherwise operate, in addition to being utilized in another useful manner. Furthermore, pipeline 1102 and platforms 1104 that are no longer adequate for oil/gas use due to failure to meet regulatory requirements may be easily adapted for use in transporting seawater due to the fact that seawater transportation is subject to fewer regulations. By way of example and not limitation, existing pipelines 1102 and their associated platforms 1104 may be located in Gulf of Mexico 204. A depiction of substantially all of active platforms 1104 currently within Gulf of Mexico 204 is shown in FIG. 12. Their vast number makes them a desirable resource for seawater transportation system 310. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the relevant art(s), any existing pipelines and their associated platforms or other facilities may be used in accordance with the description herein to transport, pump, receive, collect, and otherwise handle seawater.

In various aspects, extraction station 306 is positioned within seawater source 204 to facilitate desired aspects. For example, extraction station 306 may be positioned at a depth determined to provide seawater in a desired temperature range (e.g., below a thermocline, above a thermocline). In another aspect, extraction station 306 is positioned to reduce intake of seawater having large qualities of sand, biota, and the like. Seawater close to shore often contains significantly higher amounts of flora and fauna, compared to seawater farther out in seawater source 204. In some aspects, extraction station 306 may be located in a lower portion of the mixed layer of seawater source 204 (e.g., 25 meters to 200 meters for certain oceans or gulfs), where phytoplankton and similar fauna are unsustainable in large numbers. Extraction station 306 may be located in an ocean at a depth of more than 1000 m, below the ocean's thermocline. Extraction station 306 may be located, for example, 1, 10, 20, 100 or more miles off shore. In some aspects, such placement is chosen to position extraction station 306 beyond the continental shelf, chosen to avoid mixing from waves or currents, and/or other reasons apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) after reading the description herein.

Referring now to FIG. 13, a diagram of an exemplary hydrothermal cooling system 1300 that may receive and/or provide seawater used by seawater transportation system 310, according to an aspect of the present disclosure, is shown.

Hydrothermal cooling system 1300 may comprise intake pipes 1302, filtration plant 1304, pumping station 1306, and cooling plant 1308. Hydrothermal cooling system 1300 may extract seawater from seawater source 204 in order to facilitate one or more cooling operations. A portion of seawater extracted in this fashion may be diverted to system 310.

Referring now to FIG. 14, a diagram of the functions of exemplary hydrothermal cooling system 1300 that may receive and/or provide seawater used by seawater transportation system 310, according to an aspect of the present disclosure, is shown.

In an aspect, collected seawater received from seawater source 204 may be transported to, or from, inland sites 110 for uses other than those relating to drilling or hydraulic fracturing operations. By way of example and not limitation, seawater may be transported to and/or collected from a seawater using facility, such as hydrothermal cooling system 1300. Hydrothermal cooling system 1300 may receive seawater via one or more intake pipes 1302. In some aspects, seawater may flow into intake pipe 1302 at a rate of approximately five feet per second. Intake pipe 1302 directs the seawater to cooling plant 1308. In some aspects, cooling plant 1308 may additionally contain filtration plant 1304 (not shown in FIG. 14) and/or pumping station 1306 (not shown in FIG. 14). In other aspects, filtration plant 1304 and/or pumping station 1306 may be entities that are physically separate from cooling plant 1308, as shown in FIG. 13.

The seawater entering cooling plant 1308 may be of a relatively low temperature, such as, by way of example and not limitation, 44 or 45 degrees Fahrenheit. The cool seawater is then used in conjunction with one or more chiller devices to lower the temperature of fresh water in order to make it suitable to be pumped to various buildings for air conditioning purposes. The seawater remaining in cooling plant 1308, having absorbed heat from the cooled fresh water, is sent back to seawater source 204 via at least one outflow pipe 1402, usually at a shallower depth and closer to land than where it was originally collected.

In an aspect, rather than sending the warmed seawater from cooling plant 1308 back to seawater source 204, it may be carried, via system 310, to one or more different inland sites 110 that may require its usage, such as, by way of example and not limitation, fracturing site 302. Outflow pipe 1402 may be redirected or omitted. By keeping the seawater inland and making it available for other uses, there is a significant savings of energy, time, and money that would otherwise be lost in constantly transporting seawater back and forth from source 204. Additionally, any additives that are infused with the used seawater by a using facility, such as plant 1308, including but not limited to scale inhibitors, biocides, oxygen scavengers, and the like may be kept separate from seawater source 204 and preserved in the transported seawater to other inland sites 110 that may desire their presence, thereby saving the cost of removing and/or adding the additives later. The warmed seawater discharged from cooling plant 1308 may be cooled by the earth surrounding pipeline 304 during transportation, thus potentially increasing its value to another using facility/inland site 110.

Other plants may discharge used seawater that may be transported by seawater transportation system 310 to other inland sites 110, as may be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) after reading the description herein. As an additional example, without limitation, steel plants, such as those operated by Voestalpine AG of Linz, Austria, may use seawater in order to cool casing and tubing used by the plant. The resulting seawater effluent may be captured and transported to other inland sites 110, including fracturing site 302, via system 310. If necessary, iron and other unwanted materials may be removed from the used seawater before, during, or after transport.

Seawater may also be collected from desalination plants/processes. Generally, desalination plants take in seawater and then produce two outputs from it, those outputs being fresh water and effluent seawater with an increased salinity. The salinity of the output seawater is increased to approximately 7%, which is about 1 molar for sodium, and is regarded as a highly suitable salinity for clay swelling and fracturing operations, thereby providing substantial potential utility to various inland sites 110/seawater-using facilities, such as fracturing site 302. In a similar fashion, some desalination plants, such as the Kay Bailey Hutchinson Desalination Plant in El Paso, Tex., take in brackish water instead of seawater. Given the fact that brackish water generally has a lower salinity than seawater, the effluent seawater discharged by the desalination process has a salinity that is very similar to the salinity of seawater obtained from other sources, rather than having an increased salinity as when seawater is the intake fluid. Seawater produced by desalination plants/processes, if not captured for other uses, would otherwise have to be disposed of, such as by evaporation, deep-well injection, and the like.

Other inland sites 110/seawater-using facilities that may receive seawater via pipeline 304 include, but are not limited to, fisheries, seawater holding areas used to develop genetically modified organisms, other plants that may use seawater for cooling processes, as well as additional sites, facilities, and processes that may become apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) after reading the description herein.

Referring now to FIG. 15, a diagram of an exemplary intake pipeline 1510 configuration that may be integrated with seawater transportation system 310, according to an aspect of the present disclosure, is shown.

In an aspect, intake pipeline 1510 associated with seawater transportation system 310 may be configured so that it does not protrude into seawater source 204, particularly when seawater source 204 is an ocean or saltwater lake. Specifically, intake pipeline 1510 may be concealed within crushed gravel 1506 atop the local sand that naturally occurs at the bottom of seawater source 204. A filtration layer of displacement sand 1504 may be placed on top of crushed gravel 1506, the top of displacement sand 1504 forming ocean floor 1502. Such a concealed configuration of intake pipeline 1510 helps to prevent organisms and objects from getting sucked into intake pipeline 1510, as well as serving to prevent the occurrence of biofouling. Intake pipeline 1510 may be substantially similar to pipeline 304.

Referring now to FIG. 16, a diagram of an exemplary configuration of intake pipelines 1510 configured to be used with seawater transportation system 310, according to an aspect of the present disclosure, is shown.

In an aspect, intake pipeline 1510 (shown as 1510 a-b in FIG. 16) may be integrated with a securely attached intake screen 1602 (shown as FIG. 1602a-b in FIG. 16) at the seawater receiving end of intake pipeline 1510 located at an extraction site, such as an extraction station 306. In some aspects, intake screen 1602 may comprise one or more filters, screens, or similar devices that allow seawater to flow into intake pipeline 1510 while keeping organisms and objects out. In some further aspects, intake screen 1602 may be equipped with a slow moving propeller that serves to very slowly rotate the intake screen 1602 while simultaneously functioning to prevent fish, plankton, and other creatures and/or objects from entering intake screen 1602 and eventually intake pipeline 1510. In an aspect, the rotational speed of the screen is such that its movement is not discernable in real time to the naked eye. In some aspects, the internal propeller may be moved via the energy provided by the current of seawater passing through it. In some alternative aspects, the propeller may be moved by at least one external power source, such as an electric or hydraulic source capable of producing mechanical energy. In other aspects, other types of power sources may be used as recognized by those skilled in the relevant art(s). The intake propeller may be incorporated with any aspect of seawater transportation system 310, including direct integration with the receiving end of intake pipeline 1510. The receiving end of intake pipeline 1510 may be joined with the main body of intake pipeline 1510 via flexible pipe coupling 1604 (shown as 1604 a-b in FIG. 16). Flexible pipe coupling 1604 may comprise a metallic or similar substance of at least partial flexibility in order to allow for the angular positioning of the main body of intake pipeline 1510 relative to the receiving end of pipeline 1510, which may be securely mounted onto concrete slab 1610 in order to achieve stability and proper position maintenance. Concrete slab 1610 may be movable via the utilization of one or more lifting lugs 1606 (labeled only as 1606 a in FIG. 16, for clarity). Lifting lugs 1606 may be rigid hook-like structures formed as part of concrete slab 1610 or attached securely thereto. The receiving end of intake pipeline 1510 may be further integrated with blind flange 1608 (shown as 1608 a-b in FIG. 16). In order to facilitate pipe maintenance, blind flange 1608 may be removable.

Referring now to FIG. 17, a diagram of an exemplary configuration of intake pipelines 1510 with extraction station 306, according to an aspect of the present disclosure, is shown.

In an aspect, intake pipeline 1510 may be connected to extraction station 306 via one or more backflush pipes 1706 (labeled only as 1706 a in FIG. 17, for clarity). Via at least one butterfly valve 1702 (labeled only as 1702 a in FIG. 17, for clarity), the flow of seawater may be directed to one or more storage tanks 106 (shown as 106 a-b in FIG. 17), one or more pumps 1704 (labeled only as 1704 a in FIG. 17, for clarity), and/or sent to various destinations via one or more outgoing pipelines 1708 (shown as 1708 a-b in FIG. 17). Backflush pipes 1706 and outgoing pipelines 1708 may be substantially similar to intake pipeline 1510 and pipeline 304. The end of intake pipeline 1510 that adjoins with extraction station 306 may be equipped with a slide gate 1710 (shown as 1710 a-b in FIG. 17).

This disclosure should not be limited to the specifically named transportation mechanisms discussed. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the relevant arts after reading the description herein, alternative transportation mechanisms, now known and developed in the future, may be used to transport seawater, or other fluids or compositions of matter which may serve as a basis for fracturing fluid, from plentiful seawater source 204 to inland hydraulic fracturing site 302. Such mechanisms may be utilized to transport seawater a portion of the distance, or the entire distance.

While various aspects of the present disclosure have been described above, it should be understood that they have been presented by way of example and not limitation. It will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s) that various changes in form and detail can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure. Thus, the present disclosure should not be limited by any of the above described exemplary aspects, but should be defined only in accordance with the following claims and their equivalents.

In addition, it should be understood that the figures in the attachments, which highlight the structure, methodology, functionality and advantages of the present disclosure, are presented for example purposes only. The present disclosure is sufficiently flexible and configurable, such that it may be implemented in ways other than that shown in the accompanying figures (e.g., transportation of other fluids or compositions of matter to inland hydraulic fracturing sites; utilization of transportation mechanisms and devices other than those mentioned herein). As will be appreciated by those skilled in the relevant art(s) after reading the description herein, certain features from different aspects of the systems, methods and computer program products of the present disclosure may be combined to form yet new aspects of the present disclosure.

Further, the purpose of the foregoing Abstract is to enable the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office and the public generally and especially the scientists, engineers and practitioners in the relevant art(s) who are not familiar with patent or legal terms or phraseology, to determine quickly from a cursory inspection the nature and essence of this technical disclosure. The Abstract is not intended to be limiting as to the scope of the present disclosure in any way. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of forming a seawater-based fluid for use at an inland oilfield having an inland oilfield wellbore, the method comprising: (a) receiving seawater from a seawater source; (b) transporting, via a pipeline for at least a portion of the distance, the collected seawater from the seawater source to an inland oilfield; and (c) providing, at the inland oilfield, a quantity of the collected seawater from the seawater source, for fracturing or drilling operations at an inland oilfield wellbore; wherein the pipeline comprises derated pipeline no longer approved for carrying petroleum.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the seawater source is an offshore oil platform.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the offshore oil platform is not currently used for oil production.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the seawater source is a desalinization plant.
 5. The method of claim 4, wherein the seawater is diverted from a desalinization intake line.
 6. The method of claim 4, wherein the seawater source is a desalinization plant outflow line.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the seawater source is a seawater-using facility.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the seawater-using facility is one of: a fishery; a thermoelectric plant; a steel plant; and a hydrothermal cooling system.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the seawater is collected below a thermocline.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the seawater is collected at an extraction location more than 10 miles from shore.
 11. A method of forming a drilling or hydraulic fracturing fluid, the method comprising: (a) collecting seawater from a desalination plant; (b) transporting the collected seawater from the desalination plant to an inland oilfield; and (c) providing, at the inland oilfield, a quantity of the collected seawater from the desalination plant, for fracturing or drilling operations at an inland oilfield wellbore; wherein the inland oilfield has at least one additional wellbore which has previously solely utilized locally-sourced, freshwater-based fluid for hydraulic fracturing, the locally-sourced, freshwater-based fluid not containing produced water.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the seawater is diverted from a desalinization intake line of the desalination plant.
 13. The method of claim 11, wherein the seawater source is a desalinization plant outflow line of the desalination plant.
 14. A method of forming a drilling or hydraulic fracturing fluid, the method comprising: (a) collecting seawater from a seawater source; (b) transporting the collected seawater from the seawater source to an inland oilfield; and (c) providing, at the inland oilfield, a quantity of the collected seawater from the seawater source, for fracturing or drilling operations at an inland oilfield wellbore; wherein the seawater source is one of: an offshore oil platform; and a seawater-using facility; and wherein the inland oilfield has at least one additional wellbore which has previously solely utilized locally-sourced, freshwater-based fluid for hydraulic fracturing, the locally-sourced, freshwater-based fluid not containing produced water.
 15. The method of claim 14, wherein the seawater source is the offshore platform, and wherein the offshore oil platform is not currently used for oil production.
 16. The method of claim 14, wherein the seawater source is the seawater-using facility, and wherein the seawater-using facility is one of: a fishery; a thermoelectric plant; a steel plant; and a hydrothermal cooling system.
 17. The method of claim 14, wherein the seawater source collects the seawater from at least one of an ocean, a saltwater lake, and a sea, and the seawater is collected below a thermocline.
 18. The method of claim 14, wherein the seawater source is located at a location more than 10 miles from shore. 